Instrumentation Technical Whitepapers

Instrumentation Technical Whitepapers

provide researches and students with information regarding Industrial Automation, Instrumentational and Program Control.

• A consideration of pH measurement and the elements of the analysis system (81.67 KB)
• A Discussion on Security (1297.07 KB)
• A Guide for Process Measurement and Control (1562.09 KB)
• Advanced Fieldbus Diagnostics, without Fieldbus (442.98 KB) This paper investigates and shows alternative technologies available to capture diagnostics.
• An optimal consensus tracking control algorithm for autonomous underwater vehicles (225.76 KB) Optimal estimated values of system states are obtained by recursive filtering for the multiple autonomous underwater vehicles modeled to multi-agent systems with Kalman filter.
• An Overview of the Use of Strain Gauges in Pressure Measurement (1110.83 KB)
• Basic instrumentation measuring devices and basic PID control (853.07 KB) This paper describes the areas like Pressure, Flow, Level, Temperature, Neutron Flux and Control pertaining to instrumentation and control.
• Basic Process Control (539.04 KB) This paper explains about the Basic control principles, Proportional control, Rest or Integral and Rate or Derivative in brief.
• Benefits of Controller Monitoring and Integrated PID Optimization (30.72 KB) This paper discusses the integration of PID optimization software with the performance monitor.
• Broadband over Powerlines (4.08 MB)
• Calibrating Custody Transfer Gas Meter (474.11 KB)
• Calibration and Standards in Flow Measurement (157.76 KB)
• Calibration of electronic nonautomatic weighing instruments – Error analysis (156.76 KB) This paper introduces a new methodology which can be implemented in all designs and most specifically in single-range, multiple-range and multiinterval instruments.
• Calibration of instruments (37.08 KB) This paper explains on how to calibrate an instrument.
• CFD Guides Design of Biomass Boiler Retrofit (514.57 KB)
• Chapter 1: Introduction to Instrumentation (Presentation) (94.52 KB) This paper gives a general walk-through on Instrumentation.
• Choosing performance assessments (102.56 KB) Performance monitoring must provide a comparison of loop health from loop to loop. This enables the promise of powerful analysis available for control loop, unit operations, the plant, the entire site or the entire corporation.
• Control Performance Supervision Enhances Revamp (1561.98 KB) This project paper suggests that improved control performance is crucial to achieving targets in a record time. The project included equipment upgrades to a gas compressor, hydrogen purification unit and several distillation columns.
• Control System Asset Management (395.02 KB) This paper lays out specific plans for establishing a control system asset management program.
• Control systems (125.64 KB) This paper briefly explains about the elements of control system, electronic components and materials, test and measuring instruments, principles of instrumentation, electrical machines and fundamentals of digital electronics.
• Control Valve Selection (48.53 KB)
• Data Optimization (2.64 MB)
• Deaths Could Have Been Prevented By Proper SCADA System Configuration (22.19 KB)
• Digital Protection System Using Optical Instrument Transformers (2.42 MB)
• DOE Fundamentals Handbook (2.23 MB)
• Dosimetric Concepts and Calibration of Instruments (334.31 KB) In this paper, the concept for radiation protection quantities and the operational quantities introduced by ICRU for monitoring of external exposure is described along with some problems.
• Exploring the engine room of manufacturing companies – Gerhard Greeff (197.61 KB)
• Finding the Source of Cycling In Process Plants (1558.64 KB) This white paper demonstrates practical methods to improve process efficiency by detecting, prioritizing,and eliminating cycling.
• Flow Measurement Sampling and Process Control (91.84 KB)
• Fluid Flow Measurement Selection and Sizing (146.9 KB)
• Fundamentals of TCP/IP Troubleshooting (194.13 KB)
• Future Directions for 2002 (1813 KB)
• Generalized Performance Characteristics of Instruments (1502.25 KB) This paper briefly discusses about the instrument performance characteristics, generalized configurations and functional descriptions of measuring instruments and measurement standards.
• GIS Instrument Transformers (452 KB)
• Glossary of Process Control Terms (16.62 KB)
• How to Troubleshoot TCP_IP Connectivity with Windows XP (40.84 KB)
• I&C Diagrams (103.48 KB) This paper has several graphs and diagrams.
• I/O Bus Networks Including DeviceNet (1241.9 KB)
• ICT32 Software (3.78 MB)
• Impulse Lines for Differential Pressure Flow Meters (546.49 KB)
• Industrial Flow Measurement (3.21 MB)
• Influence of Instrument Transformers on Power System Protection (1156.33 KB)
• Instrument transformers (348.75 KB)
• Instrumentation and Control (26.31 KB)
• Instrumentation and Control – Tutorial 3 – Signal Processors and Receivers (368.16 KB) This paper provides an overview of signal processing and conditioning for use in instrumentation and automatic control systems.
• Instrumentation and Control Tutorial 2 (392.66 KB)
• Instrumentation and Control Tutorial 3 (175 KB)
• Instrumentation for Far-infrared Spectroscopy (2.51 MB)
• Instrumentation in the Dairy Industry (243.11 KB)
• Intro to PLCs (2.14 MB)
• Learn how to assess and improve control loop performance (149.65 KB) This paper describes how to establish a benchmark of metrics or assessments for an entire plant or group of loops which allows comparison in time, how the work and moneys spent by personnel benefits the operation of the plant.
• Lecture 2: Sensor characteristics (221.96 KB) This paper explains about Transducers, sensors and measurements, Calibration, interfering and modifying inputs, Static sensor characteristics and Dynamic sensor characteristics.
• Level Measurement (Presentation) (299.64 KB) This paper briefly explains about the types of level measurement with diagrams.
• Looptuning – An Overview (31.32 KB)
• Magnetostriction (60.47 KB)
• MAS vs MES – Gerhard Greef (64.72 KB)
• Methods for the calibration of electrostatic measuring instruments (311.34 KB) This paper describes about the methods for formal calibration of the main instruments used for electrostatic measurements.
• Microfabricated Instrumentation for Chemical Sensing (14.8 MB)
• Module 2 Measurement Systems (164.54 KB) This paper defines the different terms used for characterizing the performance of an instrument/ measurement system and performance specifications of a measurement system from its test data.
• More On Decoupling (395.7 KB)
• Neutron Flux Measurement (Presenation) (284.38 KB) This paper briefly describes about Neutron Flux Measurement, Startup Instrumentation, Run up Instrumentation and Under Load Instrumentation.
• New Developments in Online Calorific Value Analysis (758.9 KB)
• New Principles and Practices in Machinery Safety (207.06 KB)
• OLE for Process Control This  article  describes  aspects  of  a  process  control  system  for  both  continuous  and  batch applications  that  bridges  the  application  gap  between  programmable  controllers  (PLCs)  and small  distributed  control  systems (DCSs).
• PATPRO Software (386.38 KB)
• Performance and optimization — an economic point of view (135.94 KB) This article describes the basics why process control can affect plant performance, cover maintenance, process optimization, performance supervision.
• Performance Monitor Raises Service Factor Of MPC (290.34 KB) The paper presents the application of a Performance Monitor in a unit operation where the objective of optimization against constraints is the job of an MPC controller.
• Performance of Instruments: Static Characteristics (68.82 KB) The paper describes about the static characteristics of instruments.
• Plant Wide Performance Monitor Bridges Resource Gap (137.92 KB) In this paper the Performance Monitor pinpoints the problem and with integrated tools allows the maintenance engineer to further get a quantitative diagnosis of the problem loops based on greatest economic gain.
• PLC Primer (251.51 KB)
• PLC Start-Up and Maintenance (1059.96 KB)
• Pressure Measurement (Presentation) (360.41 KB) This paper contains a short presentation on Pressure Measurement.
• Pressure Switches – a short refresher (1112.3 KB)
• Prioritizing and Optimizing Problem Loops Using a Loop Monitoring System (128.45 KB) This study presents a process monitoring and optimization package which continually monitors and assess the plant for problem loops. It identifies the problem loops and provide seamless integrated tools for optimizing them.
• Process Monitoring and Loop Prioritization Can Reap Big Payback and Benefit Process Plants (296.68 KB) In this paper, a Process Monitoring system has been introduced that provides the user to prioritize time to make the largest economic impact in the plant and tools for automatic diagnosis of the problem, detailed analysis.
• Process Visualisation using Plant Intelligence (4.48 MB)
• Programmable Controllers: Theory and Implementation (1458.96 KB)
• Relative Humidity (14.37 KB)
• Reverse-acting radar level transmitter – tackling the most difficult level applications (1199.7 KB)
• Robust stabilization of a quadrotor UAV in presence of actuator and sensor faults (511.09 KB) This paper deals with the stabilization problem of an underactuated quadrotor UAV system in presence of actuator and sensor faults.
• Role of measurement and calibration in the manufacture of products for the global market (292.25 KB) This paper assists small and medium-sized enterprises and other interested users to understand in simple terms the role of measurement and calibration in the manufacture of products for the global market.
• Safety Instrumentated Systems (171.31 KB)
• SF6 Gas Insulated Instrument Transformers (366.88 KB)
• Static & Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments (307.51 KB) This paper explains about the static and dynamic characteristics of instruments.
• Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instrumentation (359.72 KB) This paper describes static and dynamic characteristics of instrument systems and calibration of measurements.
• Temperature Measurement (298.47 KB) This paper shows various diagrams and graphs on temperature measurement.
• The procurement, qualification and calibration of lab instruments: An Overview (23.48 KB) In this paper, a systematic approach to ensure the reliability of the instruments used in the analyses is discussed in detail.
• The static and dynamic efficiency of instruments of promotion of renewables (447.58 KB) This paper deals with a comparative analysis of the economic and social effi-ciency of the instruments used to promote renewable energy sources (RES), first from a static standpoint and then using dynamic criteria.
• Transducers (658.45 KB) This paper briefly describes about transducers and its specifications.
• Ultrasonic Flow Measurement (1696.29 KB)
• Visual Loop Tuning (31.32 KB)
• A Guide to Sizing Orifice Plate Flow Meters This article explains the Orifice Plate Flow Meters.
• Switching Boost Converter Power Supply This article explains the Switching Boost Converter Power Supply.
• VHF Super-Regenerative Receiver This article explains the VHF Super-Regenerative Receiver.
• SM0VPO 500mW Linear Amplifier This article describes the SM0VPO 500mW Linear Amplifier.
• Van de Graaff Generator This article explains the Van de Graaff Generator.
• Simple Electrometer This article breifs the Simple Electrometer.
• Marx Generator This article offers the Marx Generator.
• Optical Tachometer This article breifs the Optical Tachometer.
• Pinhole Projector This article explains on Pin-Hole Optics.
• Tube Regenerative Receiver This article breifs about the Tube Regenerative Receiver.
• Plasma Diode Detector This article explains the Plasma Diode Detector.
• Mains Hum Survey Probe This article explains about the Mains Hum Survay Probe and its working.
• More Marx Generators This article breifs the More Marx Generators.
• RF Sweep Generator This article describes the RF Sweep Generator.
• Multimeter RF Power Add-On This article explains about the RF Power Add-On of Multimeter.
• HF Wavemeter This article explains the HF Wavemeter.
• Inductor and Capacitor Measurement Fixture This article explains  the Inductor and Capacitor Measurement Fixture.
• RF and Optical Bolometer This article offers the RF and Optical Bolometer.
• Control Valve End Connection This article describes bout the  Control Valve End Connection.
• List of Processes Used in Marine Workshop of Ships This article confers the Process list of marine workshop.
• Temperature Measurement This article describes the Temperature Measurement.
• Pressure Transmitter Calibration This article explains on Pressure Transmitter Calibration.
• Control Valve Trim Type This article describes the Trim type of control valve. 
• Side Entry, Top Entry, and Welded Body Ball Valves This article breifs about the Side Entry, Top Entry, and Welded Body Ball Valves.
• Soft Seated or Metal Seated Ball Valves? This article describes on Soft or Metal Seated Ball Valves.
• Temperature Element Instrument This article beifs about Temperature Element Instrument.
• Flow Measurement This article offers the Measurement of Flow.
• Pressure Measurement This article offers the Measurement of Pressure.
• Level Measurement This article describes about the Level Measurement.
• Onstream Analyzers This article explains how to measure the physical proerty of process material.
• Stiction: the hidden menace This article breifs about stiction: the hidden menace.
• Issues in Valve Selection This article confers about Issues in Valve Selection.
• CMOS is Different: PCB Design for Both Low Noise and Low EMI This article explains the CMOS is Different: PCB Design for Both Low Noise and Low EMI.
• Environmental Meters This article describes on Environmental Meters.
• Filter Connectors Designed With Multilayer Varistor Arrays This article explains about the Filter Connectors Designed With Multilayer Varistor Arrays.
• Fremodyne VHF AM/FM Receiver This artticle breifs about the Fremodyne VHF AM/FM Receiver.
• HEMP Filter Design To Meet MIL -STD-188-125 PCI Test Requirements This article explains the HEMP Filter Design.
• High Power Electromagnetic (HPEM) Threats to the Smart Grid This article describes the High Power Electromagnetic (HPEM) Threats to the Smart Grid.
• Integrated Inductive Component Reduces Radiated Emissions in Power Applications This article explains Integrated Inductive Component which Reduces Radiated Emissions in Power Applications.
• Key Specifications For An Electronic Load This article confers the Key Specifications For An Electronic Load.
• Lithium-Zinc Ferrite for the Suppression of Electromagnetic Noise This article describes the suppression method of Electromagnetic Noise with the aid of Lithium-Zinc Ferrite.
• Low Frequency Magentic Shielding: An Integrated Solution This artocle breifs on the Integrated Solution with Low Frequency Magnetic Shielding.
• Measurement of Intermittent Emissions with a Time-Domain EMI Measurement System This article explains the Measurement of Intermittent Emissions with a Time-Domain EMI Measurement System.
• Rise Time vs. Bandwidth and Applications This article describes the Rise Time vs. Bandwidth and Applications.
• Analog vs. Digital Transmission This article explains about the Analog vs. Digital Transmission.
• Baseband Video Transmission This article breifs about the Baseband Video Transmission.
• Broadband Video Transmission This article describes on Broadband Video Transmission.
• Coarse Wavelength-division Multiplexing This article confers abut the Coarse Wavelength-division Multiplexing.
• Couplers & Splitters This article describes about the Couplers and Splitters.
• Dense Wavelength-division Multiplexing This article explains the Dense Wavelength-division Multiplexing.
• Digital Fiber Optic Multichannel V/A/D Transport Systems This article offers about Digital Fiber Optic Multichannel V/A/D Transport Systems.
• External Modulators This article describes on External Modulators.
• Fiber Dispersion This article confers the Dispersion of Fiber.
• Fiber Nonlinearities This article breifs about Fiber Nonlinearities.
• Fiber Optic Connectors This article explains about Fiber Optic Connectors.
• Fiber Optic Detectors This article explains the Fiber Optic Detectors.
• Fiber Optic Network Topologies for ITS and Other Systems This article describes on Fiber Optic Network Topologies for ITS and Other Systems.
• Instrumentation Provides Process Control & Balance This article explains about Balancing and control process in Instrumentation.
• Laser Backreflection – The Bane of Good Performance This article breifs about the Laser Backreflection – The Bane of Good Performance.
• Laser Diodes This article describes the Laser Diodes and its configuration.
• Open-Delta Systems Affect Variable Frequency Drives This article confers the Open-Delta Systems Affect Variable Frequency Drives.
• Optical Amplifiers This article explains about the Optical Amplifiers.
• Parts of a Transmission Link This article breifs on Part of Transmission Link.
• Switches This article confers about the Switches and its type.
• The Latest Generation of VFDs This article describes the Latest Generation of VFD’s.
• VFDs Eliminate the Need for PLCs and External Hardware This article explains the VFDs Eliminate the Need for PLCs and External Hardware.
• Battery construction This article explains the Construction of Battery.
• Current signal systems This article breifs on the Current signal systems.
• Measurements of AC magnitude This article describes about the Measurement of AC magnitude.
• pH measurement This article confers about the Measurement of pH.
• Strain gauges This article offers the measuring element for physical force named as Strain gauge.
• Tachogenerators This article explains about the electromechanical generator-Tachogenerator.
• Voltage signal systems This article describes the Instrument which is use for of variable voltage .
• Peak detector This article explains about the Peak detector.
• Understanding pressure instrumentation This paper describes about how to Understand pressure instrumentation.
• Interferometer This paper explains about the operation of interferometer.
• Laser Doppler anemometer This paper explains about the operation of laser doppler anemometer.
• Electrical Torsion Meter (Torque Measurement using slotted Discs) This paper explains about the electrical torsion meter.
• Seismic – Displacement Sensing Accelerometer This paper explains about the seismic displacement sensing accelerometer.
• What is a Magnetic Tape Recorders This paper explains about the operation of magnetic tape recorders.
• D’Arsonval Movement (Electrical Analog Meter) This paper explains about the operation of d’rsonval movement.
• Moving magnet type velocity Transducer This paper explains about the moving magnet type velocity transducer.
• Pirani gauge – A Thermal conductivity Gauge This paper explains about the Pirani gauge is a type of thermal conductivity gauges.
• Hot Wire Anemometer (Thermal Method) This paper explains about the constant current and temperature method.
• Level measurement using Gauge Glass Technique This paper explains about the construction and working of gauge glass technique.
• Bourdon tube Pressure Gauge This article explains about the bourdon tube pressure gauge.
• Permanent magnet moving coil instruments (PMMC) This article deals with advantages and disadvantages of PMMC.
• Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT) This article explains about the construction and working of LVDT.
• Types of control systems This article explains about the two types of control systems.
• McLeod Vacuum Gauge This article explains about the basic principle of mcleod vaccum gauge.
• How to use venturi meter for measuring flow rate This article explains about the basic principle and the construction of venturi meter.
• Head type flowmeters – Based on Differential Pressure Measurement This paper explains about the head type flowmeters.
• Pressure Measurement using U-tube Manometer This paper explains about the construction of U-tube manometer.
• Optical pyrometer( Disappearing filament Type) This paper explains about the construction of optical pyrometer.
• How to Measure Flow Using Orifice Meter This paper explains about the principle of orifice meter.
• Total radiation pyrometer This paper explains about the total radiation pyrometer.
• Bonded Strain Gauges This paper explains about the three types of bonded strain gauges.
• Construction and types of Thermistor This paper explains about the construction and types of thermistor.
• Turbine Type Anemometer This paper explains about the operations of turbine type anemometer.
• Spiral bimetallic thermometer This paper explains about the operation of spiral bimetallic thermometer.
• Ultrasonics – Introduction. This paper explains about the properties of ultrasound.
• Programmable Logic Controller – PLC This paper explains about the features and working principles of PLC.
• How to select a Transducer ? This paper explains about the selecting of a transducer.
• Ratio Control System This paper explains about the example and applications of ratio control system.
• Dew Point Meter This paper explains about the basic principle of dew point meter.
• Hair Hydrometer This paper explains about the description of hair hydrometer.
• Sling Psychrometer This paper explains about the operation of sling psychrometer.
• Humidity / Dampness Measurement This paper explains about the some common terms related to humidity measurement.
• Surface Preparation and bonding techniques This paper explains about the Surface preparation and bonding techniques.
• Unbonded Strain Gauges This paper explains about the operation of unbonded strain gauges.
• Load cell and Load cell Types This paper explains about the hydraulin and pnematic load cell.
• Effects of Feedback This paper explains about the feedback system.
• Feedback Principle This paper explains about the feedback principle.
• Measurement of Strain This paper explains about the strain gauges are used in some of the applications.
• Laws of thermoelectricity This paper explains about the laws of thermoelectricity.
• Microprocessor based data logging, processing and output – A mini Project This paper explains about the microprocessor based data logging,processing and output.
• Elastic diaphragm gauges This paper explains about the operation of elastic diaphragm gauges.
• Dead Weight Tester This paper explains about the operation of dead weight tester.
• Terms related to pressure This paper explains about the terms related to pressure.
• Bimetallic Thermometer This paper explains about the basic principle of bimetallic thermometer.
• Distance Meters This paper explains about the Distance Meters.
• How To Avoid Future Problems By Properly Utilizing Calibration  This article describes on How To Avoid Future Problems By Properly Utilizing Calibration Equipment.
• Where Do You Use Pressure Switch Calibration Equipment? This article explains the Pressure Switch Calibration Equipment.
• Calibration Equipment: Understanding the Essence and Meaning of Calibration This paper briefs about the Calibration Equipment: Understanding the Essence and Meaning of Calibration.
• Measuring Electrical Resistance With Test Equipment This paper describes about how to Measure Electrical Resistance With Test Equipment.
• CMOS camera as a sensor This article explains about the configuration of CMOS camera as a sensor.
• Scanalogic: the beginning! This article briefly explains about the Scanalogic.
• Build your 40 MHz Frequency meter! This article shows how to build a small, cheap and simple frequency meter, without any fancy, out of reach components. 
• Digital Thermometer This article relies on a famous analog To digital conversion scheme called counting type ADC.
• 99 000 RPM Contact-Less Digital Tachometer This article describes how to build a contact -less tachometer using a 8051 microcontroller and a proximity sensor.
• Infra-Red Proximity Sensor Part 1 This article explains about Infra-Red Proximity Sensor Part 1.
• Line tracking sensors and algorithms This paper describes about Line tracking sensors and algorithms.
• A Short History and Review of Shielded Cables This paper describes about A Short History and Review of Shielded Cables.
• Composition Sensors This article describes about the composite sensors and types of testing with types of photometers.
• Flow Sensors This article explains about the flow sensors with common types of flow meters.
• PID Introduction This article explains the introduction to piping and diagram.
• PID Safety Features This article explains about the PID Safety Features in detail.
• PID Standard Pitfalls This article describes about the different pitfalls of P&IDs.
• PID Standard Structure This article explains about the piping and instrumentation diagram standard structure.
• Temperature Sensors This article describes the temperature sensors, two kinds on temperature sensors: 1) contact sensors and 2) noncontact sensors. and the 3 main types are thermometers, resistance temperature detectors, and thermocouples.
• A.C, Capacitor Comparison and Maxwell’s Bridge This article describes the block diagram of A.C, Capacitor Comparison and Maxwell’s Bridge.
• Block Diagram of Signal Generator This article describes the Block Diagram of Signal Generator and F sine and square wave generator.
• Block Diagram of Simple Oscilloscope This article discusses the block diagram of simple oscilloscope, delay line, vertical amplifier and trigger circuit.
• Bolometer and RF Power Measurement Using Bolometer This article explains Power measurement at audio and radio frequency.
• Bolometer Mount and Power Measurement This article explains the Bolometer Mount, bolometer bridge and Power measurement using self balancing bolometer.
• Bridge Circuits This article explains the introduction, advantages of bridge circuit with wheatson’s bridge and kelvin bridge.
• D.C. Signal Conditioning System This article describes the DC signal conditioning system with functions.
• Derivation of Gauge Factor This article describes the derivation of gauge factor.
• Digital Instruments This article discusses the introduction, Performance parameters of digital voltmeters and Block diagram of DVM.
• Digital Multimeters and Frequency Meter This article describes the block diagram of digital multimeters and digital frequency meters.
• Display Devices This article explains the introduction to display and classification of display withbasic operation and construction of Light emitting diode functions in detail.
• Dual and Multiple Beam Oscilloscopes This article explains the block diagram of dual beam oscilloscope, multiple beam oscilloscope and dual trace oscilloscope.
• Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM This article describes the block diagram of dual slope integrating type DVM.
• Electronic Multimeter This article explains the Use of multimeter for D.C measurement, Use of multimeter as ammeter, Use of multimeter for measurement of A.C voltage and Use of multimeter for resistance measurement.
• Function Generator This article explains the function generator and its block diagram.
• Functional Elements of an Instrument This article describes the functional elements of an instrument such as precision, conformity, significant figures, errors and dynamic errors.
• Functions of Digital Frequency Meter This article explains the functions of digital frquency meter.
• Interpolating Integrating and  Successive Approximation Type DVM This article explains the block diagram of Interpolating Integrating and  Successive Approximation Type DVM. 
• Introduction to Bolometer Power Meter This article describes bolometer and bolometer elemets.
• Introduction to Signal Conditioning This article describes the introduction to signal conditioning.
• Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) This article describes the types of LCD and Field Effect Display.
• Measurement Errors This article discusses about the introduction and advantages of electronic measurement.
• Oscilloscopes in Electronic Instrumentation This article describes the Oscilloscopes in Electronic Instrumentation with Cathode ray oscilloscope and cathode ray tube.
• Piezoelectric Transducer, Photovoltaic Cell and Phototransistor This article discusses the working principles of Piezoelectric Transducer, Photovoltaic Cell and Phototransistor.
• Ramp Type DVM This article explains the linear ramp technigram with neat diagram.
• Resistance Position Transducer & Strain Gauges This article explains the Resistance Position Transducer & Strain Gauges in detail with block diagram.
• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) This article  explains the introduction to RTD and construction to RTD.
• Signal Generators This article explains the signal generators introduction and requirements.
• Special Oscilloscopes This article describes the block diagram and functions of Delayed time base oscilloscope and Analog storage oscilloscope.
• Special Oscilloscopes – II This article discusses the Block diagram of Sampling Oscilloscope and Digital Storage Oscilloscope.
• Square Wave and Pulse Generator This article discusses the square wave generator and Laboratory type square wave and pulse generator.
• Static Errors in Instruments This article explains the gross errors, sytematic errors and random errors.
• Sweep-Frequency Generators This article explains the block diagram of Sweep-Frequency Generators.
• Thermistors and LVDT This article describes the thermistors and construction of thermistors with Linear variable differential transformer in detail.
• Transducers – I This article discusses the introduction to transducers, passive transducers and resistive transducers.
• V – F Converter Type Integrating DVM This article discusses about the block diagram of voltage to frequency converter type integrating DVM.
• Voltmeters This article explains the Basic DC and multirange voltmeters.
• Voltmeters – II This article describes the A.C voltmeters using rectifier, Basic rectifier type voltmeter and A.C voltmeter using fullwave rectifier.